SSC CGL Tier 1 2022 General Awareness Questions with Solutions

Explanation

Jöns Jacob Berzelius was a Swedish chemist who is considered one of the founders of modern chemistry. He discovered several chemical elements, most notably cerium in 1803, selenium in 1817, and thorium in 1828. Berzelius is also responsible for the development of the modern system of chemical notation. In 1813, he proposed replacing the complex pictorial symbols used by earlier chemists and John Dalton with a system based on the Latin names of the elements. In this system, each element is represented by one or two letters, such as C for carbon or Ag for silver (argentum). This streamlined method allowed for the clear representation of chemical proportions in compounds and remains the global standard for writing chemical formulas today.

Explanation

The year 1991 is regarded as the year of divide in India's foreign trade because it marked the transition from a closed, protectionist economy to a liberalized, globalized one. Before 1991, India followed an inward-looking policy of import substitution characterized by high tariffs, strict quotas, and the License Raj, which limited international competition. However, a severe Balance of Payments crisis in 1991 forced a radical shift in economic strategy. Under the New Economic Policy, India implemented structural reforms focusing on Liberalization, Privatization, and Globalization (LPG). This involved devaluing the rupee, reducing customs duties, removing quantitative restrictions on imports, and simplifying trade procedures. These reforms opened the Indian market to global competition and significantly increased the country's share in world trade, making 1991 the definitive turning point in India's trade history.

Explanation

The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act of 1992 mandated the creation of a State Election Commission in every state for the superintendence, direction, and control of the preparation of electoral rolls and the conduct of all elections to the Panchayati Raj institutions. According to Article 243K of the Constitution of India, the State Election Commissioner is appointed by the Governor to ensure the autonomous and fair conduct of these local body elections, distinct from the responsibilities of the Election Commission of India.

Explanation

The money multiplier is a phenomenon where an initial deposit leads to a greater total increase in the money supply through the process of credit creation by commercial banks. It is defined as the ratio of the money supply to the monetary base. In a simplified fractional reserve banking system where there is no currency leakage to the public and banks do not hold excess reserves, the multiplier is the reciprocal of the required reserve ratio. The Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) represents the mandatory portion of deposits that banks must keep with the central bank. Therefore, the formula for the money multiplier is expressed as m = (1)/(CRR). This inverse relationship indicates that a lower CRR allows banks to lend more, thereby increasing the money multiplier and the overall money supply in the economy.

Explanation

Sonal Mansingh is a distinguished exponent of Bharatanatyam and Odissi who was honored with the Padma Vibhushan in 2003 for her outstanding contribution to Indian classical dance. With this recognition, she became the youngest woman to receive the award at that time. Her illustrious career is marked by her role as a dancer, choreographer, and teacher, and she was previously awarded the Padma Bhushan in 1992. She is widely recognized for her efforts in preserving and promoting traditional Indian dance forms through her performances and her institution, the Centre for Indian Classical Dances.

Explanation

Sage Vyasa, also known as Krishna Dvaipayana, is traditionally credited with the authorship and compilation of several foundational texts in Indian literature. He is most famously recognized as the compiler of the Mahabharata, the world's longest epic, which chronicles the history and philosophical discourses surrounding the Kurukshetra War. Beyond this epic, Vyasa is also regarded as the primary compiler of the eighteen Mahapuranas, which serve as essential records of ancient mythology, genealogy, and cosmology. His title, Veda Vyasa, further denotes his monumental work in organizing the single primordial Veda into four distinct parts—Rig, Yajur, Sama, and Atharva—to ensure the preservation of sacred knowledge across successive generations. This extensive body of work establishes him as the central figure responsible for synthesizing the Vedic and Puranic traditions.

Explanation

Sultan Mahmud, also known as Mahmud of Ghazni, was the most prominent ruler of the Ghaznavid dynasty, which was named after its capital city, Ghazni, located in modern-day Afghanistan. Inheriting the throne from his father Sabuktigin in 998 CE, he transformed the small principality into a vast empire. From his base in Ghazni, he launched seventeen expeditions into the Indian subcontinent between 1000 and 1027 CE. These raids were primarily aimed at plundering the immense wealth of Indian temple towns, such as Somnath, to finance his military campaigns in Central Asia and to establish Ghazni as a great center of Islamic art, literature, and culture.

Explanation

In 1919, Irving Langmuir published a landmark paper titled The Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms and Molecules in the Journal of the American Chemical Society. Building upon the 1916 work of Gilbert N. Lewis, who had proposed a static cubical model for the atom, Langmuir refined the theory by suggesting that electrons in the valence shell occupy specific positions in concentric shells. In this work, Langmuir formally introduced the term covalent bond to describe the chemical linkage formed by the sharing of pairs of electrons between atoms. His modifications shifted the focus from the rigid geometric cubical arrangement to a more generalized concept of electron-pair sharing to achieve a stable octet, which significantly advanced the modern understanding of molecular bonding.

Explanation

Manipuri dance, also known as Jagoi, is characterized by two distinct styles: the graceful Jagoi and the vigorous Cholom. Jagoi represents the Lasya element, which is fluid and gentle, predominantly seen in the Raslila performances depicting the divine love of Radha and Krishna. In contrast, Cholom represents the Tandava element, involving rhythmic and athletic movements often accompanied by instruments. Examples include the Pung Cholom, where dancers play the drum while performing intricate leaps and turns, and the Kartal Cholom, involving the use of cymbals. These two divisions together define the unique repertoire and aesthetic of the Manipuri classical tradition.

Explanation

Guru Kelucharan Mohapatra was a legendary Indian classical dancer and the primary figure responsible for the revival of Odissi in the 20th century. He was instrumental in codifying the grammar and techniques of the dance form, drawing from the traditional Mahari and Gotipua traditions to elevate it to a globally recognized classical status. In recognition of his immense contribution to the performing arts and his role as a master teacher and choreographer, he became the first person from the state of Odisha to be conferred with the Padma Vibhushan, India's second-highest civilian award, in 2000. He also founded the dance academy Srjan to train and mentor subsequent generations of dancers.

Explanation

The Sahitya Akademi Award is a prestigious literary honor in India, conferred annually on writers for their outstanding works in any of the twenty-four major Indian languages recognized by the Akademi. Since 2009, the cash prize associated with the award has been fixed at ₹1,00,000 (one lakh rupees). Recipients of the 2019 awards received this purse money along with an engraved copper plaque and a shawl. This standard prize amount of ₹1 lakh is also shared by other national academies such as the Sangeet Natak Akademi and the Lalit Kala Akademi for their annual awards.

Explanation

Punyakoti Dattu Yojana is a cattle adoption scheme launched by the Government of Karnataka to promote the conservation of cows and encourage public and private participation in their welfare. The scheme allows individuals and organizations to adopt cattle from government-run and private cow shelters (Goushalas) by providing financial assistance for their maintenance. The Karnataka government appointed the prominent Kannada actor Kichcha Sudeep as the brand ambassador for this initiative to leverage his popularity in raising awareness and motivating the public to contribute to bovine protection. His role involves advocating for the program's objectives, which include providing better fodder, medical care, and infrastructure for the state's cattle population.

Explanation

The Akbar Nama, authored by Abu'l Fazl, is the official chronicle of the reign of the Mughal Emperor Akbar and is structured into three distinct volumes. The second volume focuses on the detailed chronological history of Akbar's reign, recording the various political events, military campaigns, and significant occurrences that took place year by year up to the 46th year of his rule in 1602. It serves as the primary historical narrative of the administrative and territorial expansion of the Mughal Empire under Akbar's personal governance.

Explanation

The Loo is a hot, dry, and powerful wind that blows during the summer months, specifically in May and June, across the northern plains of India and Pakistan. It is classified as a local wind because its occurrence is restricted to a specific geographical area and is driven by localized variations in temperature and pressure. During the peak of summer, intense heating of the land in the Indo-Gangetic Plain creates a regional low-pressure system, causing these scorching winds to blow from the west. The Loo is known for its extremely high temperatures, often reaching between 45°C and 50°C, and is a significant climatic feature of the pre-monsoon season in the Indian subcontinent, directly impacting the local weather and health of the population in that specific region.

Explanation

i - Mitochondria: These organelles are the sites of cellular respiration where biochemical energy is produced in the form of ATP, leading to energy generation for the cell.

ii - Ribosomes: These structures are responsible for translating genetic information from RNA into chains of amino acids, which is the process of protein synthesis.

iii - Nucleus: This organelle contains the hereditary material of the cell and acts as the control center, ensuring the regulation of activity of a cell including growth and metabolism.

iv - Lysosomes: These membrane-bound vesicles contain hydrolytic enzymes that decompose waste materials and cellular debris, effectively serving as the digestive system of a cell.

Explanation

The Tamil Nadu government launched the Chief Minister's Breakfast Scheme on September 15, 2022, in Madurai to commemorate the birth anniversary of former Chief Minister C.N. Annadurai. This pioneering initiative provides free nutritious breakfast to students of Classes 1 to 5 in government primary schools. The scheme was designed to address nutritional deficiencies, improve school enrollment, and reduce the dropout rate among young children. By implementing this program, Tamil Nadu became the first state in the country to offer a free breakfast scheme for school children alongside the long-standing midday meal program. The meals are prepared according to specific nutritional guidelines to ensure children receive adequate calories and protein to support their physical and cognitive development.

Explanation

The Tamil word muvendar is used in Sangam literature to describe the heads of the three powerful ruling houses of ancient South India. Derived from the Tamil roots mu, meaning three, and vendar, meaning kings or chiefs, it specifically refers to the Cholas, the Cheras, and the Pandyas. These three dynasties dominated the Tamil region, known as Tamilakam, during the Sangam period between approximately the 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE. Each of these three chiefs maintained two major centers of power, one situated inland and the other on the coast, allowing them to control significant trade routes and resources across the southern peninsula.

Explanation

Anthracite represents the highest rank of coal because it has undergone the highest level of coalification, subjected to intense pressure and heat over millions of years. It contains the highest percentage of fixed carbon, typically ranging between 86% and 97%, while containing the lowest levels of moisture and volatile matter. This high carbon density provides anthracite with the greatest energy content and heating value of all coal types. It is a hard, brittle, and black lustrous coal that burns slowly with a clean, blue flame, producing very little smoke or ash, which makes it the most efficient and high-quality fuel source among coal varieties.

Explanation

The bacterial flagellum is a complex locomotive structure composed of three distinct regions: the filament, the hook, and the basal body. The filament is the longest, outermost portion that extends into the surrounding medium and is constructed from subunits of the protein flagellin arranged in a helical fashion. This filament is attached to a wider, flexible coupling known as the hook, which functions as a universal joint to transmit rotational torque. The hook is anchored to the cell by the basal body, which is the motor apparatus embedded within the cell wall and plasma membrane. The basal body consists of a central rod and a series of rings that facilitate the rotation of the flagellum, allowing the bacterium to move through its environment.

Explanation

Bleaching powder is the common name for the chemical compound calcium oxychloride, represented by the formula CaOCl₂. It is produced by the action of chlorine gas on dry slaked lime, which is calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)₂. The reaction can be expressed as Ca(OH)₂ + Cl₂ → CaOCl₂ + H₂O. This compound is extensively used in the textile and paper industries for bleaching purposes, as an oxidizing agent in various chemical processes, and as a disinfectant for treating drinking water to eliminate pathogens.

Explanation

Ugadi, also known as Yugadi, marks the beginning of the Hindu New Year for the people of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Karnataka. The name is derived from the Sanskrit words Yuga meaning age and Adi meaning beginning. According to the Hindu lunisolar calendar, the festival is celebrated on the first day of the bright half, known as Shukla Paksha, of the month of Chaitra. This month typically falls in March or April of the Gregorian calendar and signifies the onset of spring and the start of a new lunar year. It is a day of joy and renewal, often associated with the creation of the universe by Lord Brahma.

Explanation

Raju Khan won the National Film Award for Best Choreography at the 49th National Film Awards, which were announced in 2002, for his work in the period sports-drama Lagaan. He was specifically recognized for the rhythmic and expressive dance sequences in the song Ghanan Ghanan, which depicted the villagers' anticipation of the monsoon. His choreography in the film was praised for its authenticity in capturing rural Indian folk movements while maintaining a grand cinematic appeal. The film Lagaan itself was a major success at the National Film Awards that year, winning multiple categories including Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment.

Explanation

Public goods are defined by the characteristic of non-rivalry in consumption. This principle dictates that the use of the good by one individual does not reduce its availability or diminish the benefits derived by others. Unlike private goods, where consumption is mutually exclusive, public goods are collective in nature. The marginal cost of providing the good to an additional consumer is zero, meaning that multiple people can simultaneously enjoy the service without interfering with each other's utility. Examples such as national defense, air quality, or street lighting illustrate this property, as one person's protection or use of the light does not leave less protection or light for anyone else.

Explanation

The Right to Property is a constitutional right provided under Article 300A of the Indian Constitution. Originally, it was a Fundamental Right under Article 19(1)(f) and Article 31. However, the 44th Constitutional Amendment Act of 1978 abolished the right to property as a Fundamental Right and inserted Article 300A in Part XII of the Constitution. This article states that no person shall be deprived of his property save by authority of law. This means that while the right is no longer a fundamental right, it remains a legal and constitutional right, ensuring that the state cannot seize private property without following the due process of law and having legislative authorization.

Explanation

Mawsynram, located in the East Khasi Hills district of Meghalaya, India, is recognized as the wettest place on Earth. It receives the highest average annual rainfall globally, recorded at approximately 11,872 millimeters. This intense precipitation is caused by the orographic lift provided by the Khasi Hills. When the moisture-laden monsoon winds blowing from the Bay of Bengal are trapped in the funnel-shaped valley and forced to rise, they undergo rapid cooling and condensation, leading to torrential rainfall. Mawsynram has consistently held this record over the years, surpassing the nearby town of Cherrapunji due to its specific topographical advantages that maximize the capture of moisture from the Indian Summer Monsoon.

Explanation

The Gujarat Legislative Assembly unanimously withdrew the Gujarat Control of Stray Cattle (Urban Areas) Bill in September 2022. This legislation was originally passed in April 2022 to regulate the movement of stray cattle in the state's eight municipal corporations and 156 towns. The bill mandated that cattle owners obtain licenses and tag their animals, while also prescribing strict penalties and imprisonment for those allowing cattle to roam on public roads. Following its passage, the bill faced intense opposition and large-scale protests from the Maldhari community, who are traditional cattle rearers. In response to these protests and representations from the community, the state government proposed the withdrawal of the bill during a two-day assembly session, which was accepted by the house.

Explanation

Siraj-ud-Daulah succeeded his maternal grandfather, Alivardi Khan, as the Nawab of Bengal in April 1756. Alivardi Khan had no sons and had nominated Siraj-ud-Daulah, the son of his youngest daughter Amina Begum, as his heir-apparent during his lifetime. Upon Alivardi Khan's death, Siraj-ud-Daulah ascended the throne at the age of 23. His reign was marked by immediate conflict with the British East India Company over the misuse of trade privileges and the unauthorized fortification of Calcutta, leading to the historic Battle of Plassey in 1757.

Explanation

The Bhitargaon Temple, located in the Kanpur district of Uttar Pradesh, is a significant monument of the Gupta Empire dating back to the 5th century CE. It stands as one of the oldest surviving Hindu shrines built entirely of baked bricks and terracotta. This construction style was particularly prominent in the fertile plains of North India where stone was less accessible. The temple is renowned for its tall pyramidal spire or shikhara and its exterior walls which are adorned with intricate terracotta panels and carvings depicting various mythological scenes and deities. The use of kiln-fired or baked bricks provided the structural durability that has allowed the temple to survive for over fifteen centuries.

Explanation

Rangabati is a highly popular folk dance and song that originated in the Sambalpur region of western Odisha. It is deeply rooted in the Sambalpuri culture and is typically performed during social celebrations, weddings, and festivals. The dance is known for its rhythmic footwork and vibrant music, often accompanied by traditional instruments like the dhol, nisan, and mahuri. While it gained widespread recognition through its iconic song, the dance remains a quintessential representation of the ethnic folk heritage of Odisha.

Explanation

Crystal Field Theory (CFT) is an electrostatic model that describes the bonding in metal complexes by treating ligands as point charges. The theory focuses on the removal of degeneracy in the five d-orbitals of a central metal ion. In an isolated gaseous metal atom, all five d-orbitals have the same energy. However, when ligands approach the metal ion to form a complex, the electrostatic field created by the ligands causes these d-orbitals to split into different energy levels. The specific pattern of this d-orbital splitting is determined by the geometry of the metal complex. For example, in an octahedral geometry, the d-orbitals split into a higher-energy e_g set (dₓ_²₋_y_² and d_z_²) and a lower-energy t₂_g set (dₓ_y, d_y_z, and dₓ_z). This splitting explains the electronic transitions, magnetic properties, and stabilization energy of coordination compounds.

Explanation

The West Bengal government launched the Paray Shikshalaya (Neighborhood School) initiative in early 2022 to facilitate open-air classroom learning for students from pre-primary to class 7. This program was specifically designed to address the learning gap caused by the prolonged closure of schools during the COVID-19 pandemic. By utilizing open spaces such as neighborhood parks, playgrounds, and community centers, the initiative provided a safe environment that complied with health protocols while re-engaging children with the formal education system. It emphasized foundational literacy, numeracy, and cultural activities, drawing on the support of local teachers and para-teachers to bring education directly to the community level.

Explanation

Sarod maestro Amjad Ali Khan performed at the Nobel Peace Prize Concert held at the Oslo Spektrum in Norway on December 11, 2014. This performance was part of the celebrations honoring the 2014 Nobel Peace Prize laureates, Kailash Satyarthi and Malala Yousafzai. Amjad Ali Khan, accompanied by his sons Amaan Ali Khan and Ayaan Ali Khan, presented a special composition titled Raga For Peace, which was specifically chosen to reflect the theme of global harmony and non-violence associated with the prestigious award.

Explanation

Dr. Samir V. Kamat was appointed as the Secretary of the Department of Defence Research and Development and the Chairman of the Defence Research and Development Organisation on August 25, 2022. The Appointments Committee of the Cabinet approved his appointment to succeed Dr. G. Satheesh Reddy, who was subsequently appointed as the Scientific Adviser to the Defence Minister. Prior to taking over as the head of DRDO, Dr. Kamat served as the Director General of Naval Systems and Materials since July 2017. He is a distinguished scientist with a background in Metallurgical Engineering from IIT Kharagpur and a doctorate from the Ohio State University, specializing in the field of materials science.

Explanation

In diploblastic organisms, such as those in the phyla Cnidaria and Ctenophora, the body develops from two primary embryonic germ layers: the outer ectoderm and the inner endoderm. Between these two cellular layers lies an undifferentiated, non-cellular, and jelly-like substance known as the mesoglea. This layer acts as a structural scaffold, providing buoyancy and flexibility to the organism's body while allowing for the diffusion of nutrients and oxygen. While triploblastic animals develop a complex cellular mesoderm in this space, diploblastic animals retain this translucent matrix to maintain their structural integrity and facilitate basic physiological processes.

Explanation

Exogenic forces are external forces that operate on the Earth's surface, deriving their energy primarily from solar radiation and gravitational pull. Erosion is a fundamental exogenic process that involves the wearing away, breakdown, and transport of surface materials such as soil and rock. This process is carried out by various natural agents, including running water, wind, glaciers, and waves. By continuously removing and relocating weathered material, erosion works to reshape the landscape and lower the elevation of landforms through degradation. Unlike internal processes that build relief, these surface-based forces act to level the Earth's crust over geological time.

Explanation

India hosted the ICC Men's Cricket World Cup (One Day International) on three occasions prior to May 2022. The first instance was in 1987, when India co-hosted the tournament with Pakistan, marking the first time the event was held outside of England. The second instance occurred in 1996, with India co-hosting alongside Pakistan and Sri Lanka. The third instance was the 2011 World Cup, which India co-hosted with Sri Lanka and Bangladesh. During these three editions, India served as a major venue for numerous matches, including hosting the final match of the tournament in both 1987 at Eden Gardens, Kolkata, and 2011 at the Wankhede Stadium, Mumbai.

Explanation

The 15th edition of the Indian Premier League (IPL 2022) began on March 26, 2022, with the opening match contested between the Chennai Super Kings and the Kolkata Knight Riders. This match was held at the Wankhede Stadium, which is located in Mumbai. To minimize travel and maintain a bio-secure environment during the COVID-19 pandemic, the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI) scheduled the entire league phase of the tournament across four venues in Maharashtra, specifically in Mumbai and Pune. Mumbai served as the primary hub, hosting matches at the Wankhede Stadium, Brabourne Stadium, and DY Patil Stadium.

Explanation

The High Yielding Varieties Programme (HYVP) was launched in India during the Kharif season of 1966-67 as a critical component of the New Agricultural Strategy, marking the beginning of the Green Revolution. The programme focused on five major food crops: wheat, paddy, maize, jowar, and bajra, introducing seeds that responded better to fertilizers and irrigation compared to traditional varieties. In its initial phase of implementation, the government targeted an area of approximately 2.1 million hectares to demonstrate the potential for significantly higher yields. This strategic rollout was concentrated in regions with reliable water supplies to ensure the optimal performance of the high-yielding seeds and the associated chemical inputs.

Explanation

Water vapour is the most abundant greenhouse gas in the atmosphere and is responsible for the largest portion of the natural greenhouse effect. Its concentration varies significantly depending on air temperature and geographical location, ranging from nearly 0 percent in extremely cold regions to about 4 percent in warm, humid tropical areas. Because warmer air can hold more moisture, water vapour creates a powerful feedback loop that amplifies the warming caused by other gases. While other greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide are often the focus of human-induced climate change, water vapour remains the most prevalent by volume due to its fundamental role in the Earth's hydrological cycle.

Explanation

Prithviraja III, popularly known as Prithviraj Chauhan, was the most prominent and celebrated ruler of the Chahamana (Chauhan) dynasty. Reigning from approximately 1177 to 1192 CE, he controlled much of present-day Rajasthan, Haryana, and Delhi. He is best remembered for his military engagements with the Ghurid invader Sultan Muhammad Ghori. In 1191 CE, Prithviraja III secured a major victory against Ghori in the First Battle of Tarain. However, he was defeated and captured in the Second Battle of Tarain in 1192 CE, an event that significantly paved the way for the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate. His heroic exploits and life are famously immortalized in the epic poem Prithviraj Raso, attributed to his court poet Chand Bardai.

Explanation

The Indian Parliamentary Group (IPG) is an autonomous body that was established in 1949, following a motion adopted by the Constituent Assembly (Legislative) on August 16, 1948. It functions as the National Group of the Inter-Parliamentary Union and the Main Branch of the Commonwealth Parliamentary Association in India.

Explanation

India was the first country in the world to launch a national family planning programme in 1952. The programme was significantly broadened and made more comprehensive in the year 1972 with the implementation of the Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) Act, 1971.

This legislative measure was a critical step in providing a more holistic approach to reproductive health, as it allowed for the legal and safe termination of certain pregnancies under specific conditions. By integrating these clinical and legal provisions, the government transitioned the programme from a narrow focus on contraception to a more comprehensive framework that addressed wider aspects of maternal health and reproductive rights during the early 1970s.

Explanation

The Santhal Revolt, also known as the Santhal Hul, occurred in 1855-56 in the Damin-i-koh region of the Rajmahal Hills, located in present-day Jharkhand and West Bengal. The movement was led by two brothers, Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu, who claimed divine intervention and mobilized nearly 60,000 Santhals to protest against the exploitative practices of the British East India Company, zamindars, and moneylenders. The rebellion aimed to end the oppressive revenue system and the encroachment of outsiders, known as dikus, on tribal lands. Although the British military eventually suppressed the uprising through the use of martial law and superior weaponry, the revolt forced the colonial administration to recognize the grievances of the Santhals, leading to the enactment of the Santhal Parganas Tenancy Act and the creation of a separate Santhal Parganas district.

Explanation

Diploblastic animals are organisms whose body develops from two primary embryonic germ layers: an outer ectoderm and an inner endoderm. Coelenterates, also known as Cnidarians, are classic examples of this organizational level. In these animals, the cells are organized into two distinct layers, with an undifferentiated non-cellular layer called the mesoglea located between the ectoderm and the endoderm. This structural arrangement is simpler than that of triploblastic animals, which possess a third germ layer, the mesoderm. Typical coelenterates include jellyfish, corals, and sea anemones.

Explanation

Washing soda is chemically known as sodium carbonate decahydrate, denoted by the formula Na₂CO₃ · 10H₂O. It is a crystalline solid that contains ten molecules of water of crystallization associated with each molecule of sodium carbonate. This compound is typically synthesized through the Solvay process, which involves the reaction of sodium chloride, ammonia, and carbon dioxide. In its aqueous form, it acts as a basic salt and is extensively used as a domestic cleansing agent. It is particularly valued for its ability to remove the permanent hardness of water by reacting with dissolved calcium and magnesium ions to form insoluble precipitates.

Explanation

National income is defined as the total value of all final goods and services produced by the normal residents of a country in a financial year. A fundamental principle in its calculation is the exclusion of intermediate goods, which are products used as inputs in the production of other goods or services. Intermediate goods are excluded to avoid the problem of double counting, as their value is already reflected in the market price of the final goods. If intermediate goods were included separately, the value of the same output would be counted multiple times, leading to an overestimation of the economy's actual production. National income therefore accounts only for final products intended for consumption or investment.

Explanation

Yamini Krishnamurthy is a legendary figure in Indian classical dance, renowned for her mastery of both Bharatanatyam and Kuchipudi. In 2016, the Government of India conferred upon her the Padma Vibhushan, the country's second-highest civilian award, in recognition of her exceptional and distinguished service to the field of art. Her career has been instrumental in bringing global recognition to Indian classical dance forms through her performances and her dedication to teaching at her dance academy in Delhi.

Explanation

Harappan settlements were typically divided into two distinct sections based on their elevation and size. The part located to the west was built on a raised mud-brick platform, making it higher than the rest of the city, though it occupied a smaller surface area. Archaeologists refer to this elevated area as the citadel. It was often physically separated from the rest of the settlement by walls and contained significant public buildings, such as granaries and the Great Bath, suggesting it was used for administrative, religious, or elite purposes.

Explanation

Lieutenant General Raj Shukla (Retired) was appointed as a member of the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) in 2022. A distinguished officer with a career spanning over four decades, he previously served as the General Officer Commanding-in-Chief of the Army Training Command (ARTRAC). The UPSC is a constitutional body established under Article 315 of the Constitution of India, mandated to conduct examinations for appointments to the services of the Union and to advise the government on matters related to recruitment, transfers, and disciplinary actions. His appointment to the commission followed his retirement from active military service, where he was recognized with the Param Vishisht Seva Medal and the Yudh Seva Medal for his contributions to national security and professional military education.

Explanation

Decomposition is a biological process where complex organic matter is broken down into simpler inorganic substances. The rate of this process is heavily influenced by the chemical composition of the detritus. Lignin is a complex phenolic polymer that provides structural strength to plant cell walls, and chitin is a tough nitrogen-containing polysaccharide found in the exoskeletons of arthropods and fungal cell walls. Both substances are highly resistant to microbial action and require specialized, slow-acting enzymes for degradation. Consequently, when detritus is rich in these recalcitrant compounds, the microbial population takes a much longer time to break them down, leading to a slower decomposition rate compared to detritus rich in nitrogen or water-soluble substances like sugars.